This version explains exactly what each major sociologist — Emile Durkheim, Robert K. Merton, Edwin H. Sutherland, and Albert K. Cohen — said, in simple exam-ready language

This version explains exactly what each major sociologist — Emile Durkheim, Robert K. Merton, Edwin H. Sutherland, and Albert K. Cohen — said, in simple exam-ready language with criticism and structure.

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💠 Sociological School of Criminology – Detailed Analysis (LLB Exam Perspective)

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🔹 1. Introduction

The Sociological School of Criminology studies crime as a social phenomenon rather than an individual act.
Unlike biological or psychological theories, sociological thinkers believe that:

“Crime is caused not by individual defects, but by the society in which a person lives.”

This school looks at poverty, inequality, poor socialization, peer pressure, urbanization, unemployment, and cultural values as main causes of criminal behavior.

In simple words —

“Society creates the conditions that make crime possible.”

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🔹 2. Meaning

The Sociological School emerged in the early 20th century, when scholars began to see crime as a product of environment and social disorganization rather than sin or biology.

It emphasizes that social structure, social norms, and cultural conflict shape criminal behavior.

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🔹 3. Major Theories and Thinkers

The four key sociological thinkers who contributed to criminology are:

1. Emile Durkheim – Anomie Theory
2. Robert K. Merton – Strain Theory
3. Edwin H. Sutherland – Differential Association Theory
4. Albert K. Cohen – Subculture Theory (Delinquent Boys)

Let’s study each one in detail 👇

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🔹 (A) Emile Durkheim (1858–1917) – “Anomie and Crime”

🔸 Main Idea:

Durkheim was the father of modern sociology.
He said that crime is a normal and necessary part of every society.

“Crime is a social fact. It exists in all societies and helps define moral boundaries.”

🔸 What Durkheim Said:

• Every society has rules, norms, and laws.
• When people fail to follow these norms, social order breaks down — this condition is called Anomie (meaning “normlessness”).
• During rapid social change (industrialization, modernization), norms weaken, leading to confusion, frustration, and deviant behavior.

Example:
When society changes too fast — like unemployment, migration, or poverty — people feel lost and disconnected; some may turn to crime.

🔸 Durkheim’s Key Points:

Concept	Explanation
Anomie	A state of normlessness; when social rules break down.
Crime as Normal	Crime exists in every society and shows what behavior is unacceptable.
Functional Role of Crime	Crime can strengthen social values by showing society what is right and wrong.

🔸 Criticism:

• Crime may be “normal,” but it still harms victims.
• Overlooks personal and psychological reasons for crime.

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🔹 (B) Robert K. Merton (1910–2003) – “Strain or Anomie Theory”

Merton expanded Durkheim’s idea of Anomie.

🔸 Main Idea:

Crime occurs when society’s goals and the means to achieve them are not equally available to everyone.

“People turn to crime when they cannot achieve success by legitimate means.”

🔸 What Merton Said:

• In modern society, people are taught to aim for success, wealth, and status.
• But poor people often lack education, jobs, and opportunities.
• This creates a strain (pressure) between what they desire and what they can achieve legally.
• Some then adopt illegal means (like theft, fraud, or drugs) to reach those goals.

🔸 Merton’s Five Modes of Adaptation:

Mode	Goals Accepted?	Means Accepted?	Example
Conformity	✅ Yes	✅ Yes	Ordinary citizens
Innovation	✅ Yes	❌ No	Thieves, fraudsters
Ritualism	❌ No	✅ Yes	Bureaucrats
Retreatism	❌ No	❌ No	Drug addicts, homeless
Rebellion	❌ No	❌ No	Revolutionaries

🔸 Criticism:

• Focuses mostly on lower-class crime.
• Doesn’t explain crimes by the rich (like corruption).

🔸 Contribution:

• Brought social structure and inequality into criminological discussion.
• Major influence on later sociologists like Cohen and Cloward & Ohlin.

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🔹 (C) Edwin H. Sutherland (1883–1950) – “Differential Association Theory”

🔸 Main Idea:

Criminal behavior is learned through interaction with others — just like we learn any social behavior.

“People become criminals because they learn crime from others.”

🔸 What Sutherland Said:

• Crime is not inherited or born within a person.
• It is learned through communication with family, friends, or peer groups.
• People learn:
  • Techniques of committing crime
  • Motives and rationalizations
  • Attitudes favorable to violating the law

🔸 Core Principles:

1. Crime is learned through social interaction.
2. The closer and longer the relationship, the stronger the learning.
3. A person becomes criminal when attitudes favoring law-breaking exceed those favoring obedience to law.

🔸 Example:

A teenager growing up in a gang area learns theft, drug dealing, or violence as acceptable behavior.

🔸 Criticism:

• Ignores personal choice or psychological traits.
• Doesn’t explain how the “first criminal” learned crime.

🔸 Contribution:

• Showed that crime is a social process.
• Paved the way for rehabilitation and community-based corrections.

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🔹 (D) Albert K. Cohen (1918–2014) – “Subcultural Theory”

🔸 Main Idea:

Cohen studied juvenile delinquency and said that working-class youth form subcultures with their own values when they fail in achieving middle-class success.

“Delinquency is a reaction of youth who are denied status and respect in society.”

🔸 What Cohen Said:

• Poor boys are judged by middle-class standards (education, manners, success).
• When they fail to meet these expectations, they feel status frustration.
• They then create their own group (subculture) with new values — like toughness, aggression, and defiance of authority.
• In this group, crime becomes a source of pride and respect.

🔸 Example:

A gang of boys who steal bikes or vandalize property do so to gain status in their peer group.

🔸 Criticism:

• Focuses mainly on male working-class youth.
• Ignores female and adult crime.

🔸 Contribution:

• Brought attention to peer group influence and social frustration in youth crime.
• Basis for later theories of cultural deviance and labelling.

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🔹 4. Comparative Summary of the Four Sociologists

Scholar	Main Theory	Cause of Crime	Key Concept
Emile Durkheim	Anomie Theory	Breakdown of social norms	Anomie / Normlessness
Robert K. Merton	Strain Theory	Gap between goals and means	Innovation, Strain
Edwin H. Sutherland	Differential Association	Learning from criminal peers	Crime is learned
Albert K. Cohen	Subculture Theory	Status frustration among youth	Delinquent Subculture

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🔹 5. General Criticisms of Sociological School

1. Ignores individual psychology – focuses too much on society.
2. Overgeneralization – not all poor people become criminals.
3. Cultural bias – based mainly on Western urban society.
4. No immediate solutions – theories explain “why” but not “how to prevent” crime.

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🔹 6. Importance and Contribution

• Shifted criminology from individual blame to social understanding.
• Helped governments and courts recognize the role of poverty, unemployment, and inequality in crime.
• Inspired reformative and community-based approaches to justice.
• Foundation for modern fields like labeling theory, social control theory, and critical criminology.

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🔹 7. Conclusion

The Sociological School of Criminology teaches that crime is not just a personal failure but a social symptom.
When society fails to provide equal opportunities, people may turn to deviant paths.

“To control crime, we must reform society — not just punish the criminal.”

These thinkers — Durkheim, Merton, Sutherland, and Cohen — changed criminology from a study of evil men to a study of unjust societies, making criminology human, rational, and reformative.

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✍️ Exam Writing Tip (for 14–16 marks)

Suggested structure:

1. Introduction
2. Meaning of Sociological School
3. Durkheim – Anomie Theory
4. Merton – Strain Theory
5. Sutherland – Differential Association
6. Cohen – Subculture Theory
7. Comparative Table
8. Criticisms
9. Conclusion

✅ Underline key terms: Anomie, Strain, Differential Association, Subculture, Normlessness, Status Frustration.

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